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Authored by Philippe Lemieux via Mises Institute,

Liberty's history is often presented as a direct consequence of the Enlightenment: inherited authority was subjected to reason, persecution gave way to toleration, monarchy to constitutional government, and privilege to individual rights. In this account, classical liberalism leads naturally to Austrian economics and modern libertarianism. That sequence is useful but incomplete.

Liberty developed through the convergence of two lineages. The first is the modern lineage of Enlightenment criticism, which required political power to justify itself before reason. The second is an older realist tradition, running from Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas through the School of Salamanca, Richard Cantillon, Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Murray Rothbard. These thinkers did not form a single school, nor did they agree on every question. What connects them is a shared orientation: reality has an intelligible order, human action has a structure, and political power cannot be abolished either by command.

The relevant difference is not between the Enlightenment as a whole and an older tradition, nor between reason and faith. Important currents within the Enlightenment, especially the Scottish Enlightenment, recognized that custom, law, money, and markets could arise without deliberate design. The deeper conflict is between a constructivist current within modern thought and an older causal-realist approach to social order. Friedrich Hayek identified the pinnacle of this constructivism as the "fatal conceit," the erroneous belief that man is able to shape the world around him according to his wishes. The realist tradition emphasizes the intelligibility and causal structure of social phenomena, while the constructivist tendency places greater confidence in deliberate organization and direction.

The danger appeared when criticism of inherited institutions hardened into confidence in consciously-designed ones. Locke was not Marx, and constitutional government was not socialism. The continuity lies in method: once social order is treated primarily as an artifact of design, political disagreement increasingly turns on the identity of the designer, the objective of the plan, and the permitted range of control. This tendency appears in social planning, price controls, central banking, licensing, regulation, and the administrative management of economic life.

The older lineage begins from a different premise. Aristotle started with beings as they are and the ends toward which they tend. Human beings choose, deliberate, employ means, form households, exchange goods, and enter associations. Thomas Aquinas carried this realism into law and politics. A command does not become just simply because a ruler issues it. Human law derives its normative order from principles that political authority does not itself create.

Many late Scholastics, particularly the Spanish Scholastics associated with Salamanca, extended this framework to property, exchange, money, and political authority. They increasingly identified the just price with common estimation, shaped by utility, scarcity, and market conditions, rather than with an objective measure of production costs. By situating economic phenomena within moral agency and commutative justice, they placed limits on the arbitrary exercise of political authority in economic life. Within this tradition, thinkers such as Juan de Mariana also articulated strong limits on taxation, confiscation, and monetary debasement.

Richard Cantillon advanced this analysis by placing entrepreneurship, uncertainty, production, and market-price formation near the center of economic life. Merchants and retailers bought at known or fixed prices and later sold at prices they could not foresee, while farmers committed themselves to fixed rents without knowing what their output would command. Profit, loss, and bankruptcy therefore arose from judgment under changing conditions of demand, competition, weather, and consumer preference.

Carl Menger marked a decisive transition within the Austrian tradition. Much of British classical economics, especially in the Ricardian tradition, explained long-run exchange value primarily through labor and production costs. Menger instead began with human needs and with the economizing individual's knowledge of, and command over, goods capable of satisfying those needs. Value was not a substance stored inside an object; it arose from the relation between an individual, his needs, and the goods available to him. Market phenomena therefore had to be traced to individual judgments, choices, and exchanges. Prices, money, and other social institutions could emerge from economizing activity even when no one intended the resulting order.

Böhm-Bawerk extended the analysis to capital and time. For him, social or productive capital consists of intermediate goods used in time-consuming processes of production before final consumer goods become available.

Mises generalized the Austrian insight through praxeology, making economics part of a broader science of human action. The starting point was not an aggregate, a class, or a governmental objective; it was the acting individual employing scarce means to attain chosen ends. Exchange, prices, profit, loss, money, capital, and production are intelligible only within this structure of purposeful conduct. Mises presented praxeology as an a priori science grounded in the category of human action, with implications that could be developed through deductive reasoning independently of particular historical experience.

The extent to which this epistemology should be understood as Kantian, however, is contested. Jörg Guido Hülsmann has argued that Mises is better understood as a representative of Aristotelian realism. Although Mises employed the language of the a priori, Hülsmann points to the method of Mises's actual economic analysis, which repeatedly seeks to identify the nature and necessary relations of economic phenomena. Hülsmann therefore places him within the broader Austrian realist tradition of Menger and Böhm-Bawerk, arguing that his affinities with Kant should not be overstated. On this reading, Mises occupies an intermediate position within the lineage developed here: his epistemological vocabulary is partly Kantian, while the substance of his economic analysis retains an important Aristotelian-realist character.

Mises's critique of socialism demonstrated the practical consequences of this method. Socialist calculation does not fail merely because officials are corrupt, uninformed, or unintelligent. It fails because abolishing private ownership in the means of production eliminates genuine exchange in capital goods. Without exchange, there are no market prices through which planners can compare competing uses of resources by means of monetary calculation.

A planning authority may collect technical information, issue targets, and assign accounting figures. Such figures, however, are not exchange ratios generated by transactions among separate owners. A statistical table can describe quantities, but it cannot determine whether steel should be used for bridges, machinery, railways, or buildings in a way that responds to consumer demand and alternative costs. The defect is not located in the personality of the planner; it is built into the institutional structure of the system.

Rothbard brought this lineage to its most systematic political conclusion. He combined Austrian value theory, capital theory, and economic calculation with a broader theory of natural law, natural rights, property, and the state. His philosophical foundation differed from Mises's. Rothbard retained the praxeological method of deduction but interpreted the action axiom from an Aristotelian-Thomistic epistemological standpoint, grounding it in the nature of reality rather than in Mises's neo-Kantian conception of the action axiom as an a priori category of thought.

Rothbard also rejected the convenient story that economics began with Adam Smith and advanced in a straight line toward modern science. In his history of economic thought, he restored the Spanish Scholastics, Cantillon, the French liberal tradition, and other neglected thinkers to a central place, arguing that their contributions had been obscured by the later dominance of British classical economics.

The administrative state shows what happens when the emancipatory language of the Enlightenment is separated from the limits imposed by human action, scarcity, property, and economic calculation. It speaks the language of rights while turning rights into permissions. It recognizes property and permits markets while reserving the power to direct their use through zoning, licensing, taxation, monetary policy, and regulation. It preserves elections while transferring decisions to agencies, central banks, and experts. The system remains liberal in vocabulary and managerial in operation. Failure is treated not as evidence of institutional limits but as proof that the machinery requires another adjustment, a new rule, a larger staff, or a wider jurisdiction.

The history of liberty, therefore, is not the story of one Enlightenment becoming more consistent, but of two converging lineages. One challenged inherited authority; the other emphasized the limits that human action, causality, property, and economic calculation impose on deliberate construction. Austrian economics stands where they meet. Social order emerges through individual action, exchange, calculation, and cooperation under conditions that no central authority can fully command.

A dispute over a record sale escalated into threats and an alleged attempt to set a Portland record shop on fire, according to prosecutors.

Adrian Orange, 40, is accused of confronting the owner of Vinyl Resting Place in St. Johns on Aug. 27 after the store declined to purchase records he brought in, according to KATU ABC. Court documents say Orange threatened the owner, calling him a “dead man.”

Investigators say Orange later returned after the door had been locked, placed newspaper beneath the entrance, poured lighter fluid on it and ignited it.

A woman from a neighboring business intervened and extinguished the flames after Orange walked away. Authorities say he threatened her as well.

The KATU report says about 15 minutes later, Orange allegedly returned and kicked the store’s door while making additional threats, including, “One way or another, I’m getting to you.”

Police later located Orange outside a nearby bar. He acknowledged visiting the record shop earlier to sell records and had a lighter with him when officers found him.

Orange was arraigned on attempted arson, two burglary counts, coercion and menacing. A judge ordered him held without bail pending a preventive detention hearing.

Afterward, the store owner wrote on social media about his frustration with the broader mental health crisis, saying he felt he had exhausted his options for dealing with the problem.

A potentially dangerous laboratory incident at MIT triggered a hazmat response last week after a graduate student told medical personnel he believed he had created dimethylmercury, a highly toxic mercury compound, according to the NY Post.

The student, who has not been publicly identified, went to a local emergency room and reported the possible synthesis. That claim was serious enough to prompt MIT to close Building 18, part of its chemistry complex, while emergency crews and university officials assessed the situation.

MIT later said the student was not authorized to work with dimethylmercury and that the substance was unrelated to his approved research.

As a precaution, the university also took steps outside the laboratory. Shared spaces in the student’s residence hall were professionally cleaned, while the student’s own room was sealed during the investigation.

The NY Post writes that by Saturday, however, the situation had become less clear. MIT said new information had raised doubts about whether dimethylmercury had actually been produced. The university also said the student’s first blood test showed no evidence of mercury exposure, although the student remained under medical observation.

Testing and investigative work continued through the weekend, with Building 18 remaining closed through Sunday.

Dimethylmercury is considered an exceptionally hazardous substance because even a very small exposure can be deadly. The chemical is perhaps best known for the 1997 death of Dartmouth chemistry professor Karen Wetterhahn, who was exposed when a tiny amount reached her hand despite the gloves she was wearing.

The compound has also surfaced in at least one criminal case. It was reportedly used in the 2012 killing of a German labor union official.

MIT has not yet said definitively whether the student succeeded in making the chemical, leaving the central question of the incident unresolved even after the emergency response and cleanup.

Take-Two Interactive, whose Rockstar Games studio is developing Grand Theft Auto VI, was hit by a series of leaks last month ahead of the fall release. Bank of America analysts described the leaked footage as "impressive, but unlikely to surprise," while TTWO shares have tumbled into a correction since the leaks surfaced online.

The leaked clips reportedly expose plot details, character scenes, and gameplay mechanics, prompting Rockstar Games to call the leaks "gut-wrenching" and warn that some of the game's surprises may have been spoiled.

According to the Dutch news publication TorrentFreak, TTWO has intensified its search for the person who leaked GTA VI, asking a federal court to seal its latest demand for Discord user data, as the company describes its investigation as "rapidly evolving."

The new filing came Friday, one day after Rockstar Games streamed an extended GTA 6 preview on Netflix and months before the blockbuster title's planned November 19 release.

In mid-August, an account named "Cyberleek" began circulating the leaks. TTWO responded with takedown notices and a series of Digital Millennium Copyright Act subpoenas targeting Discord, Microsoft, X, and YouTube.

Unlike a conventional lawsuit, a DMCA subpoena allows a copyright holder to seek identifying information from an online platform before suing the alleged infringer.

In the new subpoena, filed Friday in the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, TTWO said its "investigation of the infringement at issue is rapidly evolving and ongoing," adding, "Take-Two has identified one additional Discord user and obtained additional identifying information for a previously identified Discord user, as well as additional information concerning the community servers identified in its prior subpoena for which it now seeks more targeted information."

On Monday, the SDNY granted the subpoena request. Last month, Take-Two requested four subpoenas seeking information from Discord, Microsoft, Google, and X as the GTA VI leaks went viral on social media.

TorrentFreak pointed out that TTWO withdrew its YouTube request after facing pushback from a judge.

US technology publication PCMag reported that the leaker, CyberLeek, "has gone silent after posting what appears to be the prologue to GTA 6."

Yet another major allegation against Russia has emerged this week in the pages of the London-based Financial Times, which says that Moscow has been helping Iran develop supersonic cruise missiles, in a clandestine program that has been ongoing throughout the war with the US and Israel.

Early in the conflict, it was widely reported that advanced and ultra-fast weapons were used against Israel, which might help explain why the small Mediterranean country suffered so much damage.

The FT cited as part of its journalistic investigation internal Russian evidence it has uncovered including correspondence, travel records and military patents.

The secretive program is being described as "one of the most significant known transfers of strategic military technology from Moscow to Tehran."

At the center of the new reporting is Russia’s state arms exporter Rosoboronexport, overseeing a project codenamed "C430L" - and also involving the US-sanctioned NPO Mashinostroyenia, a rocket design company.

Officials from both entities reportedly started frequently traveling to Iran in 2023, with the program having continued into June 2026 - though it's unclear whether the war with the United States has paused or halted it.

The missile reportedly under development would fly at multiple times the speed of sound, and could be an 'aircraft killer'. It should be noted there are entire Reddit threads focused on questions like: Is there any realistic way for a carrier to destroy a super-sonic “carrier killer” cruise missile?

Jim Lamson, a former CIA military analyst focused on Iran, issued a statement to FT explaining, "For the Iranians, this would give them a qualitatively new strategic weapon system that could threaten US Navy vessels."

Another interesting insight is from Fabian Hinz, a senior analyst with Conflict Armament Research. "This is the transfer of a highly strategically sensitive military technology from Russia that the Iranians have wanted to acquire for decades," he told the FT.

"A program like this would require political clearance from the very top in Russia," he added.

There of course remains the looming question of whether this is all propaganda, designed to put even more Western pressure on so-called 'rogue' actors Moscow and Tehran. It could be, but sharing such technology would also be consistent with recent defense and economic pacts the two sides have inked. This part has been no secret. They are also already deeply involved in drone transfers.

Bessent on Iran:

Iran gets some supplies from Russia, but if we shut down the Iranian airlines, which we will, then much less coming in.

They don't really get direct financial support from Russia. pic.twitter.com/yFssQLF71Y

— Clash Report (@clashreport) September 2, 2026

Already Russia witnessed a many years-long push to topple the Assad government in Syria, leading to a broad Russian troop withdrawal from the Levant, and certainly the Kremlin doesn't want to see US-imposed regime change in Tehran as well.